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the basis of numerous activities and experiences at home, in school, class and
the wider community. This is why it is important to recognise that knowledge,
competences, attitudes and self-beliefs are influenced by numerous factors on
various levels of a multi-tiered structure (Schulz et al., 2008: 30). The research
framework is shown in the table below.
Table 10: Assessment framework in the ICCS
Context Antecedents Processes Outcomes
National and other Democratic history Intended curriculum
communities Structure of education Political
Developments
School/classroom School characteristics Implemented Test results
Student Resources curriculum Student perceptions
Gender Policies and practices Student behaviour
Age Learning activities
Practices
engagements
272 Parent SES Communication
Ethnicity Peer-group activities
Home environment Language
Country of birth
Source: Schulz et al., 2008: 32
If the ICCS study assessment framework is considered, the test results (cog-
nitive achievements) present only one of the items being assessed and one of
the achievement types. The ICCS study uses proficiency levels when assessing
the students’ cognitive achievements.
The scale of civic knowledge thus reflects progress, from the ability to face
tangible, known and mechanical elements of citizenship, all the way to the un-
derstanding of a wider political climate and the institutional processes that de-
termine the condition of a citizens’ community. An analysis of achievements
by students thus led to the establishment of three proficiency levels of civic
knowledge (Schulz, Ainley, Fraillon, Kerr and Losito, 2010: 16):
− Proficiency Level 1: Engagement with the fundamental principles and
broader concepts that underpin citizenship and a mechanistic wor-
king knowledge of the operation of civic, civil, and political institutions.
− Proficiency Level 2: Knowledge and understanding of the main civic
and citizenship institutions, systems and concepts as well as of the in-
terconnectedness of civic and civil institutions and relevant operatio-
nal processes;
− Proficiency Level 3: Application of knowledge and understanding to
evaluate or justify policies, practices, and behaviours based on stu-
dents’ understanding of civics and citizenship.
student (under)achievement: perspectives, approaches, challenges
the wider community. This is why it is important to recognise that knowledge,
competences, attitudes and self-beliefs are influenced by numerous factors on
various levels of a multi-tiered structure (Schulz et al., 2008: 30). The research
framework is shown in the table below.
Table 10: Assessment framework in the ICCS
Context Antecedents Processes Outcomes
National and other Democratic history Intended curriculum
communities Structure of education Political
Developments
School/classroom School characteristics Implemented Test results
Student Resources curriculum Student perceptions
Gender Policies and practices Student behaviour
Age Learning activities
Practices
engagements
272 Parent SES Communication
Ethnicity Peer-group activities
Home environment Language
Country of birth
Source: Schulz et al., 2008: 32
If the ICCS study assessment framework is considered, the test results (cog-
nitive achievements) present only one of the items being assessed and one of
the achievement types. The ICCS study uses proficiency levels when assessing
the students’ cognitive achievements.
The scale of civic knowledge thus reflects progress, from the ability to face
tangible, known and mechanical elements of citizenship, all the way to the un-
derstanding of a wider political climate and the institutional processes that de-
termine the condition of a citizens’ community. An analysis of achievements
by students thus led to the establishment of three proficiency levels of civic
knowledge (Schulz, Ainley, Fraillon, Kerr and Losito, 2010: 16):
− Proficiency Level 1: Engagement with the fundamental principles and
broader concepts that underpin citizenship and a mechanistic wor-
king knowledge of the operation of civic, civil, and political institutions.
− Proficiency Level 2: Knowledge and understanding of the main civic
and citizenship institutions, systems and concepts as well as of the in-
terconnectedness of civic and civil institutions and relevant operatio-
nal processes;
− Proficiency Level 3: Application of knowledge and understanding to
evaluate or justify policies, practices, and behaviours based on stu-
dents’ understanding of civics and citizenship.
student (under)achievement: perspectives, approaches, challenges
